Gordon Franz
Introduction
Coins offer a “numismatic2 window” into the world of the New Testament (Oster 1982: 218). At the end of the first century AD, the power-hungry Roman emperor minted coins as political propaganda in order to influence his culture. This article peers through that window and examines the imperial coins from the reign of Emperor Domitian. The article also examines how Domitian’s regime attacked some unchanging truths of the Word of God, how the Roman provincial coins can illustrate the messages to the seven churches, and how the book of Revelation, which I believe was written during Domitian’s reign, could be seen to construct a subtle polemic against emperor Domitian.
The classic example of the Flavian3 dynasty’s use of coins for propaganda purposes is the Judea Capta coins. These coins were minted by Emperors Vespasian, Titus and Domitian and depict a Roman soldier standing guard next to a palm tree with a weeping Judea seated under the tree. On the edge are the words Judea Capta (“Judea is captured”). This coin commemorates the end of the First Jewish Revolt (AD 66–70) and the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. There were Jewish people throughout the Roman world and the propaganda message of these coins was clear: “Don’t you, or anybody else, think about revolting again. We will defeat you just as we defeated the Judeans!”4
The book of Revelation only mentions one coin by name: the denarius in the third seal judgment (Rv 6:5, 6; Franz 2000:9–11). However, monetary exchange is also mentioned in Revelation 13:17–18: and that no one may buy or sell except one who has the mark or the name of the beast, or the number of his name. Here is wisdom. Let him who has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man: His number is 666.5 How these transactions were or will be carried out, either by cash, credit card, microchip or some other technology, I will leave that for the prophetic speculators to figure out!6 Two coins illustrate the abuse of numismatics in contemporary prophetic studies. The first is a coin issued by the Vatican in 1995 with Pope John Paul II on the obverse and the depiction of the woman and child of Revelation 11 on the reverse. Some of the prophecy teachers were not so much interested in the reverse side of the coin as they were the bottom of the obverse side.
Ivan Reynoso
Denarius coin with a portrait of Emperor Domitian (AD 81–96).
Ivan Reynoso
Portrait of the late Pope John Paul II, 1995. Note the three six-pointed stars at the bottom of the coin.
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Ivan Reynoso
Greek two-Euro coin showing Europa riding a bull, 2002.
Underneath the portrait of the pope were three six-pointed stars. Prophecy teachers were quick to make the association with the number 6–6-6!
The second coin is a two-Euro coin from Greece. On the reverse of this coin is a “woman riding a beast!” Greek mythology says that this woman is Europa, a Phoenician princess, being carried away to the island of Crete by Zeus/Jupiter disguised as a bull (Melville-Jones 1990: 110).These coin types known from ancient times are also on the coins from modern Cyprus. They have nothing to do with the woman riding the beast in Revelation 17:3, 7.
Coins are a neglected area of study for New Testament scholars, yet they are important for Biblical studies. Kreitzer points out that
Greek coin from Amphipolis in Macedonia portraying Artemis Tauropolos (Greek Europa) riding a bull, reign of Claudius (AD 41–54).
numismatic evidence can…help shed light on important historical events which had a bearing on the lives of the New Testament writers and their audience (1996: 28).
A good coin to illustrate the importance of numismatics for Biblical studies is a coin minted by Antiochus IV7 with the inscription theos epiphanies (“godmanifest”) on the reverse. Some have called this the Hanukkah coin because when Antiochus desecrated the Temple in Jerusalem he also claimed deity. Several years later, Antiochus IV and his Seleucid army were defeated and the temple in Jerusalem was rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah commemorates this event (Franz 1998).
When the Lord Jesus went to the Temple for Hanukkah in John 10, He made the statement, “I and the Father are one” (10:30), an outright declaration of His deity. This declaration should be seen in the context of Antiochus’ blasphemous claim to being “god manifest” (Franz 1998).8
Ivan Reynoso
Coin of Antiochus IV (175–164 BC) depicting Zeus on a throne holding Nike. The inscription on the left reads theos epiphanou, “god manifest.”
Date of the book of Revelation
The date for the book of Revelation is a much debated topic, with two prevailing views. The early date is during the reign of Emperor Nero, ca. AD 65. Some advocates of the early date tend to see all or most of the book of Revelation as being fulfilled with the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. I do not share these views.
The second view is the late date for the book of Revelation set during the reign of Emperor Domitian, ca. AD 95. I believe a good case can be made for this date and this date is used in this article (Franz 2003; Hitchcock 2003; 2005).
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Coins of Emperor Domitian
Self-Deified Emperor
Emperor Domitian had a definite ego problem! In Imperial Rome the senate would deify an emperor upon death (Kreitzer 1990:210–17).However, Domitian, like Gaius Caligula, could not wait until death, so he deified himself while he was alive. This is well attested by the ancient writers (Franz 1999).
Suetonius (AD 75-ca. 140), in his book Lives of the Caesars, wrote,
With no less arrogance he began as follows in issuing a circular letter in the name of his procurators, “Our Master and our God bids that this be done” (Dominus et deus noster hoe fieri iubet.; 1992: Domitian 13.2 [LCL 31: 367]).
He also delighted in the adulation of the people in the amphitheater when they shouted, “Good Fortune attends our Lord and Mistress” (Domino et dominae feliciter!; 1992: Domitian 13.1 [LCL 31: 367]).
“Our Lord and Mistress” is a reference to himself and his wife.
Pliny the Younger (born AD 61 or 62-died before 113), wrote in his Panegyricus, a tribute to Emperor Trajan,
He [Domitian] was a madman, blind to the true meaning of his position, who used the arena for collecting charges of high treason, who felt himself slighted and scorned if we failed to pay homage to his gladiators, taking any criticism of them to himself and seeing insults to his own godhead and divinity; who deemed himself the equal of the gods yet raised his gladiators to his equal (1992: 33.4 [LCL 59: 395]).
Dio Cassius, in his Roman History, wrote,
For he even insisted upon being regarded as a god [theos] and took vast pride in being called “master” [despotus] and “god” [theos]…These titles were used not merely in speech but also in written documents (1995: Epitome of Book 67.5.7 [LCL 176: 329]).
Elsewhere he wrote,
One Juventius Celsus…[conspired]…against Domitian… When he was on the point of being condemned ,he begged that
Gordon Franz
Dedicatory inscription in the Temple of the Sabastoi, Ephesus. Domitian’s name was erased by order of the Roman Senate.
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he might speak to the emperor in private, and thereupon did obeisance before him and after repeatedly calling him “master” [despoton] and “god” [theon] [terms that were already being applied to him by others](1995: Epitome of Book 67.3.4[LCL 176: 349]).
Later writers repeat the same claim and then goon to embellish it. However, Statius claims Domitian rejected these titles (1982: Silvae 1.6.83–84 [LCL 206: 69, 71]).
There seems to be other contemporary evidence that backs up Domitian’s claim to be deity. Unfortunately, no monumental inscriptions have been discovered with these titles on them. Dio Cassius again added an important detail, when he wrote,
After Domitian, the Romans appointed Nerva Cocceius emperor. Because of the hatred felt for Domitian, his images, many of which were of silver and many of gold, were melted down; and from this source large amounts of money were obtained. The arches, too, of which a very great number were being erected to this one man, were torn down (1995: Epitome of Book 68.1.1 [LCL 176: 361]).
Ivan Reynoso
Coin portraying Jupiter on a throne holding Nike in his hand, ca. AD 92.
Upon his death, the Roman Senate was
overjoyed…[assailed] the dead emperor with the most insulting and stinging kind of outcries…Finally they passed a decree that his inscriptions should everywhere be erased, and all record of him obliterated (Suetonius 1992: Domitian 23.1 [LCL 31: 385]).
This decree, the damnatio memoriae, destroyed all the statues and epigraphical inscriptions of Domitian. Evidence of this can be seen in the arch at Hierapolis, built by Domitian, as well as the dedicatory inscriptions for the Temple of the Sabastoi in Ephesus (Friesen 1993: 34).
The only evidence not destroyed was the set of coins minted by Domitian, as it was impossible to recall all of them. Numismatics thus is able to provide some evidence of Domitian’s boast of deity.
Ivan Reynoso
Coin representing Jupiter holding a thunderbolt.
Ivan Reynoso
Coin showing Emperor Domitian in military dress holding a thunderbolt with Nike standing behind him, AD 90–91.
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The Numismatic Evidence
Dr. Ernest Janzen, of the University of Toronto, in an article entitled “The Jesus of the Apocalypse Wears the Emperor’s Clothes” (1994, see also 1993), provides two lines of evidence from numismatics for Domitian’s claim to deity. The first are coins minted in AD 83 called the DIVI CAESAR (“divine Caesar”) coins (Vagi 1999:329, coins 1160, 1161, 1162).These coins, minted in gold and silver, had the bust of Domitia, the wife of Domitian, on the obverse with the inscription, DIVI CAESAR MATRI and DIVI CAESARIS MATER, “mother of the divine Caesar”! (Vagi 1999: 327, coins 1149, 1150, 1151; RIC 2: 179, coin 209A; 180, coin 213).
Ivan Reynoso
Replica of a coin illustrating the deified son of Emperor Domitian reaching for seven stars.
On the reverse was their infant son who was born in the second consulship of Domitianin AD 73 and died in the second year after he became emperor in AD 82 (Suetonius 1992: Domitian 3.1 [LCL 31: 345]). He is depicted as naked and seated on a zoned globe with his arms stretched out surrounded by seven stars! (RIC 2: 209, coins 440, 441)The inscription surrounding it says DIVUS CAESAR IMP DOMITIANI F; “the divine Caesar, son of the emperor Domitian.” The infant is depicted as baby Jupiter (Jupiter being the head of the Roman pantheon).
According to Janzen,
The globe represents world dominion and power, while stars typically bespoke the divine nature of those accompanied…the infant depicted on the globe was the son of [a] god and that the infant was conqueror of the world (1994: 645–47).
It goes without saying that if he is the son of a god, then his father, Domitian, must be god! I cannot help but use my sanctified imagination and wonder if John did not have this coin in front of him when he penned,
and in the midst of the seven lampstands One like the Son of Man, clothed with a garment down to his feet…He had in His right hand seven stars (Rv 1:13, 16).
He refers back to this vision in the letter to the church at Thyatira when the Lord Jesus identifies Himself as the “Son of God” (Rv 2:18).
The second bit of numismatic evidence comes from the coins with the fulmen (“thunderbolt”) on them. The fulmen is the divine attribute of Jupiter. Janzen says,
In 84 Domitian struck reverse type Jupiter holding thunderbolt and spear. The first issue of 85 continued this type but the second issue witnessed the fulmen in Domitian’s hand. He and Jupiter would “share” the fulmen for the years 85–6 after which Jupiter remained as a regular type, only without fulmen. From 87–96 Domitian alone held the fulmen, persuasive evidence of a developing megalomania which placed the fulmen in Domitian’s hand, being clearly patterned after the Jupiter with fulmen type (1994:648n 55; RIC 2:185, coins 247, 248; 186, coin 253; 189, coin 279; 192, coin 300; 194, coins 313, 314; 196, coin 334; 197, coin 342; 203, coin 288).
One numismatic expert says that this type
clearly suggests a parallel between himself and “Jupiter tonaus” (the thunderer) or the father of the gods (Mattingly, cited in Janzen 1994: 648 n 55).
Martial, the first century satirist of Rome, confirms this idea in his writings. One of his epigrams, written in AD 94, describing the Gens Flavia says,
This piece of ground, that lies open and is being covered with marble and gold, knew our Lord (domini) in infancy…Here
Ivan Reynoso
Coin depicting emperor Domitian (right) burning incense on an altar as pontificus maximus (high priest), AD 85.
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Ivan Reynoso
Coin from Ephesus with a deer in front of a palm tree, the “tree of life.”
stood the venerable house that gave the world what Rhodes and pious Crete gave the starry sky [Helios, the sun god, was born on Rhodes according to some traditions, and Zeus, the chief god, was born on Crete]…But you the Father of the High One did protect, and for you, Caesar, thunderbolt (fulmen) and aegis took the place of spear and buckler (1993b: 9.20 [LCL 95: 249]).
Sometimes Martial even calls Domitian the “Thunderer” (1993b: 7.99:1 [LCL 95: 157]), a title that usually belongs to Jupiter (Zeus) (1993b: 9.91 [LCL 95: 311])! Domitian is being put on the same level as Jupiter.
Elsewhere in Martial’s writings he calls Domitian “lord” (1993b: 7.2; 8.82; 9.20, 28, 66 [LCL95: 75, 231, 249, 257, 291]) and “lord and god” (1993a: 5.8 [LCL94: 361]; 1993b: 7.34; 8.2; [LCL 95: 105, 161]). Interestingly, after the death of Domitian, Martial repudiates these titles attributed to Domitian (1993b: 10.72 [LCL 95: 391]). However, while Domitian was alive, I think he was reflecting the sentiments of the day. Though Martial may not have believed it, that is what Domitian wanted and that is what he got.
Gordon Franz
Remains of the Temple of Domitian in Ephesus
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ABR archive
Artist’s reconstruction of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.
Another interesting sidelight is that on some of Domitian’s coins, the initials “PM” appear. Some of the coins have Domitian praying or offering sacrifices (RIC 2: 201, coins 377, 378; 202, coins 381, 383, 385). These initials stand for pontifex maximus, the high priest as head of the Roman religion. Biblically, this title belongs only to the Lord Jesus (Heb 4:14). Yet in Revelation, “things which you [John] have seen” (Rv 1:19) is the vision of the glorified Son of Man who is also the High Priest (Thomas 1965: 241–47).
It appears that something triggered Domitian to openly claim deity in AD 85/86. The triggering event is not known, but the response in Asia Minor was a temple dedicated to the Sabastoi (emperors).This temple appears on several coins minted in Ephesus (Ramsay 1994: 168).
In the year AD 91/92 coins were minted in Alexandria, Egypt, which had on the obverse a portrait of Domitian encircled by an inscription that identified him as the “son of God” (RPC 2: 323, 328,333-37).Onecoin,inparticular,hadonitsreversefourpygmiessurroundingHercules.InHercules’lefthandisafifthpygmy and in his right is a club. The inscription calls Domitian the “son of God” (Mowat 1901: 72–74; RPC 2: 337, coin 2709).
Coins from the Seven Churches
Let us turn our attention to the Roman provincial coins of Asia Minor. The book of Revelation was addressed to the churches at Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea (Rv 1:11; 2–3). Each city minted coins during the reign of Emperor Domitian. The study of the local coins is important because of the light they shed on the city at the time. Colin Hemer points out,
Ivan Reynoso
Coin with the head of Asklepios, god of healing, from Pergamum.
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Coinage is often in fact the most illustrating key to local religion and so to the formative ideas of the society (2001: 25).
A British numismatic expert has observed,
The real value of the types of coins from the Greek East is the insights into the local city life which they reveal. Topography, architecture, literature and mythology, religious beliefs and practices, entertainments and celebrations were all considered suitable subjects for illustrations because the coinage provided citizens with a vehicle on which to express their civic pride (I. Carradice, cited in Kreitzer 1996: 28).
Ephesus
The first letter from the Lord Jesus went to the church at Ephesus (Rv 2:1–7). This city was famous because it housed one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, the Temple of Artemis/Diana (“Artemisian”). In this open-air temple there was a garden with deer roaming in front of a sacred tree and the cult statue of Artemis. This garden was called the “paradise of Artemis” (Hemer 2001: 50–52).
Many coins from Ephesus have a bee on one side, symbolizing the priestesses that ministered in the temple, as well as a palm tree and stag on the reverse (Rakicic 1994: 6–12). The palm tree was a “sacred tree” and was considered the “tree of life” (Hemer 2001: 41–47).
John writes that the “overcomers” (those who have trusted the Lord Jesus Christ as Savior and are living a victorious Christian life) will “eat from the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God” (Rv 2:7).What John is saying is this: the temple of Artemis is a false imitation of the real thing, i.e., the Biblical tree of life and the paradise of God. Believers in the Lord Jesus have something infinitely superior to the Artemisian’s hope. If they are faithful to the Lord, His Word and to each other they will be “overcomers.” Those who overcome will receive the privilege of eating from the tree of life (Rv 22:12–14) and abiding in the paradise of God.
Smyrna
The second letter is addressed to the church of Smyrna (Rv 2: 8–11). The city was established on Old Smyrna (Bayraki) and destroyed about 700 BC. It was reestablished as a polis in 290 BC. This is an example of a city that “died,” but “came to life again.” The story is told that Alexander the Great was hunting on Mt. Pagos in western Turkey when he fell asleep under a plane tree in front of the Temple of the Two Nemeses. The two goddesses appeared to him in a dream and told him to rebuild the city of Smyrna on Mt. Pagos. The Smyraeans sent envoys to the Temple of Apollo at Klaros in Greece to inquire if they should rebuild. The response from the priest was,
Thrice, yes, four times blest will those men be who shall dwell in Pagus beyond the sacred Meles (Pausanias 1988: 5.1-3 [LCL 272: 193]).
A Roman coin minted during the reign of Philippus Arab (AD 244–249) depicts Alexander the Great sleeping under a plane tree with the two Nemeses on Mt. Pagos (Akurgal 1993: pl. 46a). The two Nemeses appear on one coin minted during the reign of Domitian (RPC 2: 158, coin 1012).
Pergamum
The third letter is addressed to the believers living in Pergamum (Rv 2:12–17). Twice in the letter Jesus acknowledges that Pergamum is where “Satan throne is” and where “Satan dwells” (Rv 2:13). Commentators have had a field day trying to figure out these statements.
The numismatic evidence can support three possibilities for these ideas. The first is that Satan’s throne was located at Pergamum because there was a large temple to Asklepios, the god of healing. One of the characteristics of coins depicting Asklepios is that there is a snake coiled around a stick in his hands. Satan is called “that serpent of old, called the Devil and Satan” (Rv 12:9; RPC 2: 144, 145; coins 921, 924).
The second possibility is the altar of Zeus, the chief deity of the Greek pantheon that overlooked the lower city of Pergamum. This altar is now in the Pergamum Museum in Berlin. There are a number of coins minted with the bust of Zeus on them.
Ivan Reynoso
Coin from Pergamum illustrating a coiled serpent. Snakes are associated with the healing shrine of Asklepios.
The third possibility is the Temple of Augustus and the emperor worship associated with the place. One coin was minted during the reign of Domitian depicting a temple with four columns and a statue of Augustus (RPC 2: 144, coin 918). This temple is also de-picted in the reigns of Tiberius (RPC 1: 403, coin 2369), Claudius (RPC 1: 403, coin 2370) and Nero (RPC 1: 403, coin 2372).
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Gordon Franz
The trees mark the spot where the altar of Zeus was originally located. It was removed and is now exhibited in the Pergamum Museum in Berlin.
Gordon Franz
Temple of Emperor Trajan (AD 98–117) at Pergamum where emperor worship took place.
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Altar of Zeus from Pergamum
Possibly “Satan’s throne” referred to in Revelation 2:13. Originally built in the first half of the second century BC, it remained a prominent monument in the city until the fourth century AD. The Berlin Museum was given permission to excavate the altar between 1878 and 1886, and to remove it to Berlin to prevent it from being destroyed by locals. The frieze sculpted around the altar depicts a mythical battle between Greek gods and giants.
Michael Luddeni
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Thyatira
The fourth letter is addressed to the church meeting in the city of Thyatira (Rv 2:18–29). Colin Hemer states:
The longest and most difficult of the seven letters is addressed to the least known, least important and least remarkable of the cities. The letter was not, I think, obscure to the church in Thyatira; the problem lies in our remoteness from the contemporary facts (2001: 106).
Coins might help to shed some light on the letter. In this letter Jesus is described as “the Son of God, who has eyes like a flame of fire, and His feet are like fine brass” (Rv 2:18). This is the only time in the book of Revelation that Jesus is referred to as the “Son of God.”9
The coins of Thyatira point to Apollo Tyrimnaeus as the patron deity of the city. Apollo was the “son of Zeus.” Jesus is described as having “eyes as flames of fire” and feet “like fine brass.” The reader would immediately go back to the vision of the glorified Son of Man in Revelation 1:13–16. Colin Hemer points out that the fine brass is
an alloy of copper with metallic zinc [that] was made in Thyatira; the zinc was obtained by distillation. This was a finer and purer brass than the rough and variable coinage-alloy (2001:116).
He goes on to suggest that there might have been a statue in town of the patron deity, Apollo Tyrimnaeus. Coins have been discovered of him grasping the hands of the Roman emperor (Ramsay 1994: 235). While this coin is much later than the time of Domitian, there were coins with implements associated with Apollo (tripod, lyre) and his reign (RPC 2: 147).10
Sardis
The fifth letter is addressed to the church meeting in the city of Sardis (Rv 3:1–6). There seem to be no coins that illustrate the letter to the church at Sardis.
Philadelphia
The sixth letter was written to the church in Philadelphia (Rv 3:7–13). This was a small church to which Jesus has nothing negative to say. In fact, He commends them for keeping His Word and not denying His Name in spite of the fact that they had little strength (3:8).
There have been very few excavations in Philadelphia. In the Manisa Museum in Turkey there are statues of various deities that have been discovered by the locals while putting in foundations for their houses or plowing fields. Some of the deities represented are Dionysus, the god of wine and merrymaking; Demeter, the goddess of agriculture; and Helios, the sun god. The coins add a few more deities. Philadelphia was a city that had a pluralistic society, but also had an exclusive element in the population that thought they had a corner on the market of truth, i.e. the synagogue. Yet the believers in the Lord Jesus were faithful to Him in spite of the societal pressures.
The American Numismatic Society
Coin of Emperor Caligula (AD 37–41) with the words “Neo-Caesarea” on it. Philadelphia was called the “New Caesarea” after imperial aid helped rebuild the city.
The promise to the overcomer was that he would be made a
“pillar in the temple of My God, he shall go out no more. And I will write on him the name of my God and the name of the city of my God, the New Jerusalem, which comes down out of heaven from My God. And I will write on him My new name” (3:12).
After the devastating earthquake of AD 17, the Roman government financially assisted the cities of Asia Minor that were affected by this quake. The city showed its gratitude to the emperor by changing the name of the city to “Neocaesarea.” the New Caesarea! There were coins minted in Philadelphia with this name on them (RPC 1: 492, 493, coin 3017; 494, coins 3032–3040).
Laodicea
The final letter was written to the church in Laodicea, located in the Lycos Valley (Rv 3:14–22). In this letter, Jesus had nothing good to say about this church. In fact, He describes their arrogance by saying,
“You say, ‘I am rich, have become wealthy, and have need of nothing’—and do not know that you are wretched, miserable, poor, blind, and naked” (3:17).
The church was imitating the society around it. It was a very affluent society and quite self-sufficient. After the earthquake of AD 17, the Roman imperial government provided aid to the cities of Asia Minor, including Laodicea. Yet when Laodicea was hit with another earthquake in AD 60 (or 64) they declined the offer of imperial aid. Tacitus said,
Laodicea, one of the famous Asiatic cities, was laid in ruins by an earthquake, but recovered by its own resources, without assistance from ourselves (1994: 14.7 [LCL 322: 151]).
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In AD 22–23, Emperor Tiberius (AD 14–37) issued a coin commemorating his generosity to the cities of Asia Minor. On the reverse was Tiberius seated on a throne with his feet resting on a footstool. The inscription surrounding him states that he personally financed the restoration of the cities (Vagi 1999: 243, coin 442).
The people of Laodicea were principled fiscal conservatives. They did not take any federal (imperial) aid. They had the attitude, “We can do it ourselves, and we do not need any help, not even from the Lord!”
Ivan Reynoso
Coin representing Emperor Tiberius (AD 14–37) on a throne. It was minted to commemorate the imperial government’s financial support to rebuild earthquake-ravished Asia Minor.
Word Pictures from Revelation
Altars and Thunderbolts
In the first two years of his reign, Domitian minted coins with thunderbolts on a throne (RIC 2: 154, coin 1; 155, coins 13, 16; 156, coin 24). These two objects are associated together in the Throne Room of Heaven recorded in Revelation 4. The description given is that the Lord Jesus is sitting on the throne with the 24 elders surrounding Him. John writes, “And from the throne proceeded lightnings, thunderings, and voices” (4:5).
Statue of Domitian Riding a Horse
Emperor Domitian erected a large bronze statue of himself riding a horse in the Forum of Rome in AD 91, the famous Equus Maximus Domitiani (Platner 1929: 201–202). This statue commemorated his campaigns against the Germans and his attempt to bring peace to the Roman Empire. Statius, one of the Roman poets, describes this statue in detail in the first poem in his book, Silvae (1982 [LCL 206: 7–15). Domitian minted a coin with a detailed representation of this statue on it (Carradice 1982: 376, 377; 1993: Plate 30: 36).
In contrast, the book of Revelation, chapter 19, records the return of the Lord Jesus to earth on a white horse with His saints following Him. Domitian took the title “Lord and God.” When the Lord Jesus returns, He will have on His robe and thighs a name written, “KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF LORDS” (19:16). Domitian thought he could bring peace to the Roman Empire, but only the Lord Jesus, the Prince of Peace (Is 9:6–7) ,can bring world peace.
Apollo and Ravens Predicting Prophecy
Emperor Domitian, the self-proclaimed “Lord and God” and ruthless dictator, reigned from AD 81 to 96. During the last few years of his life, Domitian became very superstitious. In fact, on the day before he was murdered, he consulted an astrologer (Suetonius 1992: Domitian 14.3 [LCL 31: 373]). Domitian himself proclaimed his own death based on an astrological reading by declaring, “that on the following day the moon would be stained with blood in Aquarius” (Suetonius 1992: Domitian 16.1 [LCL 31: 375]). It has been demonstrated that this was based on Domitian’s astrological readings (Molnar 1995: 6–12).
During this time Domitian also consulted Apollo, the god of music and poetry, and who was also the god of light, truth and prophecy! To commemorate his superstition, the emperor minted
Ivan Reynoso
Coin with a representation of a garland altar. Rein of Emperor Domitian, AD 80.
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Ivan Reynoso
Coin showing Apollos, god of prophecy, reign of Emperor Domitian, AD 85.
Ivan Reynoso
Coin depicting the Lord Jesus as emperor, with the inscription “Jesus Christ, King of Kings.” Reign of Emperor Constantine VIII (AD 1025–1028).
Ivan Reynoso
Coin portraying a raven on a branch, reign of Emperor Domitian. It was believed that Apollos used ravens to “predict” the future.
coins depicting Apollo on one side and a raven, a bird associated with prophecy, on the reverse side (Melville-Jones 1990: 266; RIC 2: 188, coin 275; 204, coins 398, 399; 205, coin 410; 206, coin 414; 207, coin 424B).
It was believed one could tell the future by watching a raven’s flight (Kanitz 1973–74: 47), so Domitian looked to it to foretell his immediate future. Ironically, Suetonius, a Roman historian and senator, records,
A few months before he (Domitian) was killed, a raven perched on the Capitalium and cried, “All will be well,” an omen which some interpreted as follows: “… a raven … could not say, ‘It is well,’ only declared ‘It will be well’” (1992: Domitian 23.2 [LCL 31: 385]).
Emperor Domitian died soon after and all was well!
The Apostle John, exiled on the island of Patmos about AD 95, received a more sure word of prophecy. Not from a raven, nor Apollo, but from the Lord Jesus Christ Himself. The book of Revelation begins, “The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave Him to show His servants—things which must shortly take place (Rv 1:1).
He goes on to say,
Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are written in it; for the time is near (Rv 1:3).
Might we read the book, be blessed and also be encouraged.
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1993 Ancient Civilizations and Ruins of Turkey, eighth ed. Istanbul, Turkey: NET Turistik Yayinlar.
Burnett, Andrew M.; Amandry, Michel; and Carradice, Ian
1999 Roman Provincial Coinage 2: From Vespasian to Domitian (AD 69–96). London: British Museum.
Burnett, Andrew M.; Amandry, Michel; and Ripollès, Pere Pau
1992 Roman Provincial Coinage I: From the Death of Caesar to the Death of Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69). London: British Museum.
Carradice, Ian
1982 Coins, Monuments and Literature: Some Important Sestertii of Domitian. Pp. 371–83 in Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress on Numismatics (1979) 1, ed. Tony Hackens and Raymond Weiller. Luxembourg: International Association of Professional Numismatists. 1993 Types and Roman History: The Example of Domitian. Pp. 161–75 in Essays in Honour of Robert Carson and Kenneth Jenkins, ed. M. Price, Andrew M. Burnett and Roger Bland. London: Spink.
Cassius
1995 Dio’s Roman History 8: Books 61–70. Trans. Earnest Cary. Loeb Classical Library 176. Cambridge MA: Harvard.
Franz, Gordon
1998 Hanukkah: The Festival of Light. Bible and Spade 11: 91–92.
1999 The King and I: The Apostle John and Emperor Domitian. Bible and Spade 12: 45–51.
2000 The King and I: Opening the Third Seal. Bible and Spade 13: 9–11.
2003 Was “Babylon” Destroyed When Jerusalem Fell in AD 70? Pp. 221–36 in The End Time Controversy. The Second Coming Under Attack, eds. Tim LaHaye and Thomas Ice. Eugene OR: Harvest House.
Friesen, Steve
1993 Ephesus—Key to a Vision in Revelation. Biblical Archaeology Review 19.3: 24–37.
Hemer, Colin J.
2001 The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans.
Hendin, David
2001 Guide to Biblical Coins, fourth ed. New York: Amphora.
Hitchcock, Mark
2003 The Stake in the Heart—The AD 95 Date of Revelation. Pp. 123–50 in The End Times Controversy. The Second Coming Under Attack, eds. Tim LaHaye and Thomas Ice. Eugene OR: Harvest House. 2005 A Defense of the Domitianic Date of the Book of Revelation. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary.
Janzen, Ernest P.
1993 A Numismatic Compass for the Troubled Waters of the New Testament Apocalypse. Pp. 99–138 in The Picus, ed. John R. Gainer. Willowdale ON, Canada: Classical and Medieval Numismatic Society.
1994 The Jesus of the Apocalypse Wears the Emperor’s Clothes. Pp. 637–57 in SBL 1994 Seminar Papers. Atlanta: Scholars.
Kanitz, L.
1973–74 Domitian. The Man Revealed by His Coins. Journal of the Society for Ancient Numismatics 5: 45–47.
Kraybill, J. Nelson
1996 Imperial Cult and Commerce in John’s Apocalypse. Journal for the Study of the New Testament. Supplement Series 132. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic.
Kreitzer, Larry
1990 Apotheosis of the Roman Emperor. Biblical Archaeologist 53: 210–17.
1996 Striking New Images. Roman Imperial Coinage and the New Testament World. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic.
Lewis, Peter, and Bolden, Ron
2002 The Pocket Guide to Saint Paul. Coins Encountered by the Apostle on His Travels. Kent Town, South Australia: Wakefield.
Martial
1993a Epigrams 1. Trans. David R. Shackleton. Loeb Classical Library 94. Cambridge MA: Harvard.
1993b Epigrams 2. Trans. David R. Shackleton. Loeb Classical Library 95. Cambridge MA: Harvard.
Mattingly, Harold, and Sydenham, Edward
1997 Roman Imperial Coinage 2: Vespasian to Hadrian. London: Spink and Sons. Reprint of 1926 ed.
Melville-Jones, John R.
1990 A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins. London: Seaby.
Molnar, Michael R.
1995 “Blood on the Moon in Aquarius”: The Assassination of Domitian. The Celator 9.5: 6–12.
Mowat, Robert
1901 Hercules and the Pygmies. American Journal of Numismatics 35: 72–74.
Oster, Richard E.
1982 Numismatic Windows into the Social World of Early Christianity: A Methodological Inquiry. Journal of Biblical Literature 101: 195–223.
Pausanias
1988 Description of Greece 3. Trans. William H. S. Jones. Loeb Classical Library 272. Cambridge MA: Harvard University.
Platner, Samuel
1929 A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University.
Pliny, the Younger
1992 Letters and Panegyricus 2: Letters, Books 8–10, and Panegyricus, reprint of 1969 ed. Trans. Betty Radice. Loeb Classical Library 59. Cambridge MA: Harvard University.
Rakicic, M.
1994 The Bees of Ephesos. The Celator 8.12: 6–12.
Ramsay, William M.
1994 Letters to the Seven Churches. Updated Edition, ed. Mark W. Wilson. Peabody MA: Hendrickson.
RIC 2 See Mattingly and Sydenham 1997
RPC 1 See Burnett, Amandry and Ripollès 1992
RPC 2 See Burnett, Amandry and Carradice 1999
Statius, P. Papinius
1982 Statius 1: Silvae, Thebaid 1–4.Trans. John H. Mozley. Loeb Classical Library 206. Cambridge MA: Harvard University.
Suetonius
1992 Suetonius 2: Lives of the Caesars, Books 5–8, Lives of Illustrious Men. Trans. John C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library 31. Cambridge MA: Harvard University.
Tacitus, Cornelius
1994 Tacitus 5: The Annals, Books 13–16. Trans. J. Jackson. Loeb Classical Library 322. Cambridge MA: Harvard University.
Thomas, Robert
1965 The Glorified Christ on Patmos. Bibliotheca Sacra 122: 241–47.
Vagi, David
1999 Coinage and History of the Roman Empire 2: The Coinage. Sidney OH: Coin World.
Gordon Franz is a staff member of ABR with a MA in Old Testament from Columbia Biblical Seminary, Columbia SC. He has engaged in extensive archaeological research in Israel and the Mediterranean World. He is a former field trip instructor at the Institute of Holy Land Studies in Jerusalem and presently team-teaches the Talbot School of Theology’s Bible Lands program.