Joseph L. Thimes
In the era of Ramses II (about 1250 BC), the sacred plants of Egypt were lotus and papyrus. In addition, the sea reed, Juncus maritimus, was used as the “reed “ pen of the scribes at that time (Thimes 2000a). Later on, after the Greek writing techniques became prevalent (about 650 BC), the scribes began using reed pens made from the much larger reed, Phragmites aegyptiaca. This article will explain how papyrus influenced the lives of people in ancient Egypt and how it was used in the Bible.
Typical ancient Egyptian representation of papyrus (left) and lotus (right) plants. Both papyrus and lotus were considered sacred by the ancient Egyptians and are commonly depicted in their art. The papyrus plant represented lower (northern) Egypt while the lotus plant represented upper (southern) Egypt.
Today’s Taxonomy
In today’s taxonomy, Cyperus papyrus hadidii is the scientific name for the ancient Egyptian papyrus. In this scientific name, hadidii represents the subspecies that was the ancient Egyptian papyrus plant. In ancient times, papyrus often grew to heights of about 15 ft, had a “mop-shaped” umbel head, and developed a stout, triangular stem about 3½ to 5 in in thickness. This stalk was composed of a green outer rind and inner, white, spongy pith. In the ancient world, papyrus was concentrated in Egypt, Syria, and the Euphrates River regions. Papyrus is rarely found in the wild in Egypt today.
Papyrus in Ancient Egypt
In ancient Egypt, papyrus was the symbolic plant of northern (or lower) Egypt, the Nile Delta region. The term papyrus is related to the ancient Egyptian expression, pa-per-aa, which can be translated as “that which belongs to the Pharaoh.” Our word paper is derived from that Egyptian expression.
From the earliest times, papyrus played a predominant role in ancient Egypt. About 4000 BC, papyrus boats were in regular use on the Nile. On a famous slate palette of King Narmer (about 3100 BC), several stylized papyrus stalks were prominently displayed. King Djoser of Dynasty III (about 2650 BC), the builder of the first step pyramid, placed papyrus columns on the north wall of his funerary complex. For scribal equipment, the earliest representations I found were on two wooden panels showing Hesire (chief of physicians, dentist, and royal scribe under King Djoser) with his scribal equipment. A chair of Hetepheres I, the wife of Sneferu (about 2600 BC), exhibited papyrus umbels and stalks on its sides. Statues of scribes writing on papyrus scrolls were produced by Dynasty IV (about 2500 BC). An early scene of papyrus boat construction was found in the tomb of the sage and vizier, Ptahhotep (about 2400 BC), who wrote famous maxims in literature. An early scene of papyrus stalk carrying was found at Nefer’s tomb at Saqqara (about 2425 BC).
In ancient Egypt, papyrus had many functions. It was utilized in ropes, mats, boxes, amulets, rafts, boats, sandals, mummy cases, paper, and art. In funerary ceremonies, papyrus amulets were placed on the necks of some mummies to symbolize everlasting joy. Guests at funeral banquets sometimes wore floral collars of papyrus. The roots and the mop-shaped umbel heads even served as food for some of the people. In design, papyrus boats were very sturdy.
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Papyrus being commercially grown at the Pharaonic Village in Cairo. The Pharaonic Village provides a living museum of life in ancient Egypt. One of the major activities of the village is the production of papyrus as it was done in Pharaonic times. Modern artists reproduce tomb paintings on papyrus sheets and offer them for sale to visitors.
Tutankhamun (“King Tut”) hunting hippopotami from a papyrus boat, ca. 1330 BC. Tutankhamun’s unplundered tomb was discovered in 1922. Even though he was a minor king, having died at about age 17 after reigning only nine years, his tomb was packed with treasures from the 14th century BC. He is depicted wearing the red crown of northern Egypt and holding a spear in his right hand and a bronze rope in his left hand. The boat is painted green with the bow and stern in the shape of papyrus flowers with gilded petals. Egyptian Museum, Cairo
In art, papyrus was revealed in paintings on the walls of tombs and temples and in sketches on tiles and paper. Often, goddesses were featured carrying papyrus stalks or scepters. In Egyptian architecture, many papyriform pillar capitals can be found in their ancient temples. A recent Rameses II exhibit displayed papyrus plant forms carved on a wooden unguent holder and a papyrus umbel shape on a bronze mirror. To portray the union of the two lands (the two parts or lands of Egypt), the papyrus of northern Egypt was often combined with the lotus plant of southern Egypt.
Papyrus provided the very fabric of literature by serving as a “paper “ for literature to be written down and preserved for future generations (Thimes 2000b). In a very famous story in ancient Egyptian literature, the stratagem used by general Djehuty to conquer Joppa in Palestine was vividly narrated. A gold dish exhibiting papyrus umbel heads was presented to general Djehuty by his grateful Pharaoh, Thutmose III (about 1475 BC).
In legends, papyrus columns were said to hold up the sky; and Isis hunted for her husband’s (Osiris’s) papyrus boat. Papyrus was said to have existed in the primeval marsh from which all life emerged. Papyrus was a natural symbol for youth, vigor, and freshness.
Papyrus in the Bible and Bible Lands
The most significant connection between papyrus and the Bible is in the name “Bible”! In fact, the Greek term, biblos, actually referred to the inner bark of the papyrus plant. Biblos can also refer to the Phoenician city of Byblos. An ancient name of papyrus was biblos hieraticus, which translated as “priestly books.”
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Narmer Palette from the dawn of Egyptian history, ca. 3000 BC. Found in 1894 at Hierakonpolis, 70 km (43 mi) south of Luxor, the palette is thought to represent the unifying of upper and lower Egypt by Narmer, king of upper (southern) Egypt. On the reverse side Narmer is shown smiting the enemy of Uash, the delta, with a mace. In the upper right center Narmer is depicted as the falcon god Horus holding the man of the papyrus land (the delta) on a leash. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
In Exodus 2:3, a papyrus basket saves the baby Moses’s life when he was placed on the Nile waters. In Job 8:11, the papyrus habitat is exquisitely described. In Isaiah, the prophet eloquently recounts the papyrus boats of Ethiopia (Is 18:2) and narrates on general causes of papyrus habitats withering away (Is 19:6–7). In Exodus there are many references to the Red Sea. The Hebrew term, sûp, which is usually translated as “Red” in Red Sea, actually means “reed,” with reference to papyrus! In 2 John 12, there is a reference to paper. There are many more references in the Bible to bulrushes, flags, rushes, and reeds, which could refer to papyrus. It is possible that Pharaoh’s dreams in Genesis 41:2 and 18 had cows grazing on papyrus. Joseph successfully deciphered these dreams.
The Phoenician silver dish of Eshmunazar I (king of Sidon about 620 BC) clearly shows sturdy papyrus boats. In an Assyrian stone stele (about 725 BC), one of two scribes used a brush pen and papyrus to record conversations of two Assyrian soldiers. In a stone relief carving, a scribe carrying Egyptian scribal equipment was shown standing before king Bar Rakkab of Zenjirli, which was located near Aleppo, Syria (about 720 BC).
In ancient Hebrew times, the Hebrew scribes often used ancient Egyptian scribal equipment to record results on papyrus. Specific scribal equipment mentioned in the Bible included inkhorns, reed and iron pens, scrolls, signet rings, and seals. In David’s time (about 1000 BC), Seraiah, Sheva, and Josephat are mentioned as scribes and recorders. In the Bible, David, Jezebel, and Esther wrote letters (about 1000 BC, 860 BC, and 480 BC respectively). In the prophet Elisha’s time (about 825 BC), Naaman carried a dispatch from the king of Syria to the king of Israel. In king Joash’s reign (about 825 BC), the king’s scribe counted money for the king. About 590 BC, Baruch was the loyal scribe of the prophet Jeremiah. About 450 BC, Ezra was both a learned scribe in the law of Moses and a priest. Documents on papyrus and on fine, thin leather were known in Palestine, Syria, and even Assyria.
Isis carrying jars, papyrus and lotus plants. Isis was the mother goddess of ancient Egypt and symbolic mother of the king. She was wife of Osiris, god of the underworld, and it was believed she would ease the passage of ordinary people to the afterlife. She holds papyrus plants in her left hand while her right hand supports a table bearing tall jars and lotus plants. An ankh, symbol of life, is in her right hand, as well as hanging from her right arm. Based on a relief in the temple of Rameses II at Abydos, ca. 1250 BC.
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Papyrus columns in the Karnak Temple. This type of column represents a bundle of papyrus stalks, with a band at the top to secure them. From a thickened lower portion, the column tapers gracefully to the capital at the top. The capital is a bundle of papyrus buds. Peristyle Court of the Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III, Karnak.
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Mirror belonging to Sathathoriunet, daughter of Sesostris II, ca. 1850 BC, excavated in the tomb of Sathathoriunet at El-Lahun in 1914. A superb example of the skills of the jewelers of the Middle Kingdom period, the obsidian handle, inlaid with semi-precious stones, is shaped like a papyrus stem. The bottom is decorated with leaves and stem sheaths representing the primeval marsh. Both sides of the handle are decorated with a gold face of Hathor, goddess of love, joy, music and dancing, with cow’s ears. The reflective surface is made of silver. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
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“She got a papyrus basket for him and coated it with tar and pitch. Then she placed the child in it and put it among the reeds along the bank of the Nile” (Ex 2:3). The basket Moses was placed in would have been very much like this one, which was used for a burial during the First-Third Dynasties. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
Sources
Avrin, Leila
1991 Scribes, Script, and Books. Chicago: American Library Association.
Buttrick, George A.
1962 The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (4 volumes). New York: Abingdon.
Kaster, Joseph
1968 Wings of the Falcon: Life and Thought in Ancient Egypt. New York: Holt, Rinehart.& Winston (Chapter 19: The Goodness of Life).
Malek, Jaromir
1986 In the Shadow of the Pyramids. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Miller, Madeleine S., and Miller, J. Lane
1955 Encyclopedia of Bible Life. New York: Harper & Row.
Moscati, Sabatino
1965 The World of the Phoenicians. New York: Praeger.
Thimes, Joseph L.
2000a An Ancient Scribe’s Tool Kit. Bible and Spade 13:93.
2000b Ancient Egyptian Writing Materials and Techniques. Bible and Spade 13:83–88.
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