Paul W. Wallace
[Paul W. Wallace, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor of Greek Archaeology at the State University of New York at Albany and Associate Editor of Bible and Spade. In addition to his teaching and editorial experience, Dr. Wallace has traveled widely in Turkey, giving him a personal knowledge of the sites he is describing in this series of articles. He has also excavated at several sites in Greece and has authored a number of articles in the field of classics in various scholarly publications.]
Smyrna—A Wealthy City
And to the angel of the church in Smyrna write: “The words of the first and the last, who died and came to life.
“I know your tribulation and your poverty (but you are rich) and the slander of those who say that they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested, and for ten days you will have tribulation. Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. He who conquers shall not be hurt by the second death .” (Rev. 2:8–11)
Location and Historical Sketch
Smyrna is situated on the finest harbor in Asia Minor. Chios and the long promontory of the mainland which form the northern limits of the Gulf of Ephesus form at the same time the southern limits of the Gulf of Smyrna, or the Hermaeum Gulf. The Gulf of Smyrna is L-shaped and is entered from the north, from the direction of Lesbos. The entrance to the gulf is formed by the Melaena Promontory on the west, and on the east by a projection of land where the ancient city Phocaea stood. From Smyrna there was access to the Hermus River valley by which one could reach most of
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 34
interior Lydia. Though Smyrna’s Gulf was superior to Ephesus’s, it looked to the northwest; ships from the south would therefore more likely choose to put in at Ephesus, and so avoid the trip around Chios and Melaena Promontory. But everything coming from the Black Sea or the northern Aegean is almost by nature funneled into the Gulf of Smyrna.
The modern city of Izmir lies below the hill known in antiquity as
View from a house top towards Mt. Pagus, the acropolis of ancient Smyrna.
Mt. Pagus, the acropolis of the ancient city. North and northeast of the city rises Mt. Sipylus (now Manisaday), associated with some of the Greek legends (Fig. 5); east of the city rises Mt. Olympus (now Nifday). A few miles to the north is the Hermus River, which empties into the Gulf near Phocaea. Smyrna therefore escaped the fate of Ephesus and kept its harbor clear. Until the end of the 19th century the Hermus emptied into the gulf only four or five miles northwest of Smyrna, but in 1886 the river was directed into its present channel, which seems to be the ancient course as described in the literary sources.
Smyrna, like Ephesus, has stood on different sites throughout its long history; change, however, does not define the character of Smyrna as it does its sister city to the south. The first settlement of
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 35
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 36
Smyrna stood near the modern town of Bayrakli, north of Izmir, and dates from the early third millennium B.C., at the beginning of the Bronze Age. Aeolian Greek colonists arrived here in the tenth century B.C. and a flourishing city rose on the site. The Aeolian colonists, however, lost Smyrna a century or so after their arrival. After a period of civil strife in the Ionian city of Colophon the defeated party was exiled. These Ionian exiles came to Smyrna and were accepted into the city. But during the festival of Dionysus, when the Smyrnaeans left the city for the celebrations, the lonians seized the city and closed the gates on the Smyrnaeans, who then became refugees themselves in other Aeolian cities (Test. 5). Smyrna continued on its original foundation until 600 B.C. when the Lydian king Alyattes captured and destroyed it. The populace was broken up into villages, and though there was a brief return to the site of the city, it was soon abandoned.
The establishment of the new Smyrna at the foot of Mt. Pagus was the idea of Alexander the Great after he had been visited by the goddesses Nemesis in a dream (Fig. 6; Test. 4). The actual building of
Fig. 6 The twin goddesses Nemesis of Smyrna
the city, however, was done by Antigonus, and later, by Lysimachus. In the troubled years following the death of Alexander, Smyrna at first supported Seleucus, but when the power of Pergamum began to rise Smyrna turned to that city, during the reign of Attalus I. Rome’s interest in Pergamum therefore extended to Smyrna, and in Smyrna Rome found one of its most loyal supporters. Smyrna was the first city of Asia to dedicate, in 195 B.C., a temple to the cult of Rome. During the Mithridatic Wars, Smyrna earned the gratitude of Rome by sending clothing to a Roman army which was freezing in the vicinity (Test. 2). In spite of Smyrna’s important situation and pleasant surroundings, the city actually has little history from
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 37
Hellenistic times through the first century after Christ, and is seldom mentioned by the ancient authors.
Archaeological Remains
We are fortunate, however, in possessing a description of Smyrna by a traveler who visited the city around the time of Christ. Strabo (Test. 1) was obviously impressed with what he saw at Smyrna, for he seldom described a city in such detail. Since very little of the ancient city is preserved today, Strabo’s account deserves some attention. Of the buildings which he saw there Strabo singled out for mention the Metroum, or sanctuary to the Mother of the Gods, a gymnasium, two-storied colonnades, a library, and the Homereium, or sanctuary to Homer. The streets were stone-paved and were laid out in a grid, the so-called Hippodamian fashion. Except for the lack of sewers, Strabo apparently found Smyrna an altogether pleasant city.
Unfortunately, little remains of the Smyrna which Strabo saw. Scanty remains of a theater are hidden among the houses of the modern city, and the marketplace has received some attention. Both the theater and the marketplace in their present form date from the second century of our era, after the original Hellenistic buildings had been destroyed by an earthquake. The acropolis on Mt. Pagus is
The ancient agora, or marketplace, of ancient Smyrna.
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 38
crowned with a fortification of the Byzantine period, but the course of the wall is probably the same as the one built by Lysimachus in the fourth century B.C. In the mountains and valleys beyond the limits of the ancient city are other antiquities of considerable interest.
Character
One of the best known families of Greek mythology is associated with this region (Test. 6). The story of the house of Tantalus adheres in particular to Mt. Sipylus, and the inhabitants of the area identified certain landmarks with this old Greek story of death and rebirth. Tantalus also was sometimes regarded as the founder of Old Smyrna (Test. 2).
Tantalus was a favorite of the gods and was even invited to share in the divine banquets. Once Tantalus returned the honor and invited the gods to a banquet, but for some reason, perhaps to test their omniscience, he slew his son Pelops and served his son’s limbs to the gods as food. The gods immediately recoiled in horror, except for Demeter, who was distraught at the loss of her daughter and took a bite out of the shoulder. The gods restored Pelops to life and replaced his lost shoulder with one of ivory. Tantalus was punished in Tartarus, the region of punishment in the Greek underworld, where he became the symbol of eternal frustration: forever hungry and thirsty, he stands beneath a bough of fruit and in a pool of water. When he reaches for the fruit the wind blows it out of reach; when he stoops for the water, it sinks into the earth. Pelops, alive again, rules as king in the area for a while and then emigrates to Greece.
Tantalus also had a daughter named Niobe, who became the mother of seven boys and seven girls. Niobe’s pride in her offspring led her to boast that she was more fortunate than even Leto, a goddess, who had only two children. Niobe’s children were then killed by the gods, and Niobe, in the extremity of her grief, prayed to the gods that she be turned into stone. Her request was granted, and as a stone figure on Mt. Sipylus, Niobe weeps forever for her children.
Many ancient authors mention monuments, particularly around Mt. Sipylus, connected with these legends. One structure was pointed out in antiquity as the Tomb of Tantalus. Modern students have often identified it with a circular structure, built in polygonal masonry, which stands on a hill north of Old Smyrna. The Throne of Pelops was said to be near the summit of the mountain; a cutting in
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 39
the rock, not unlike a seat, can be seen today on the mountain. Weeping Niobe has been plausibly identified with a natural rock formation on the north of the mountain.
The Smyrnaeans are addressed by the “first and the last, who died and came to life” (Rev. 2:8). The people of Smyrna understood those characteristics for the city itself was a first and a last. Old Smyrna was the first city, New Smyrna the last. It had died under Alyattes and had come to life again under Alexander, just as had the local legendary hero Pelops, whose story every Smyrnaean had surely heard from his earliest years. The poverty of the poor villages before the time of Alexander concealed the true riches which the people possessed: a locality of supreme geographical importance blessed with a superb climate. The true wealth of Smyrna was not immediately apparent, at least not to everyone. Alexander saw the city’s true wealth, and so did St. John, a wealth that had become part of the people (Test. 3). But trouble lies ahead, and suffering, as those who possess such desirable surroundings should expect. But the test will be good for them, for it will reveal to them what life really is. The one who achieves this realization will have gained his crown of life. Smyrna’s crown was made not of fine buildings and gold, but of human excellence (Test. 8, 3).
The use of the word “crown” (stephanos) in connection with the city must have been common among the Smyrnaeans, for some reason (Test. 7). Perhaps the usage developed from referring to the citadel with its “crown” of fortifications. In any case, the word is used with remarkable frequency considering how few are the ancient references to the city.
The road from Smyrna to Sardis goes between Mt. Sipylus and Mt. Olympus. The pass between the mountains, now called Belkahve, was extremely important for the protection of Smyrna. A fort guarded the pass, and an inscription found there tells how the garrison once honored its commander and his family with golden crowns.
Testimonia
1. A Description of the City (First Century B.C.)
Next one comes to another gulf, on which is the old Smyrna, twenty stadia distant from the present Smyrna. After Smyrna had been razed by the Lydians, its inhabitants continued for about four hundred years to live in villages. Then they were reassembled into a city by Antigonus, and afterwards by Lysimachus, and their city is now the most beautiful of all; a part of it is on a mountain and walled, but the greater part of it is in the plain near the harbour and near the Metroum and near the gymnasium. The division into streets is exceptionally
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 40
good, in straight lines as far as possible; and the streets are paved with stone; and there are large quadrangular porticoes, with both lower and upper stories. There is also a library; and the Homereium, a quadrangular portico containing a shrine and wooden statue of Homer; for the Smyrnaeans also lay especial claim to the poet; and indeed a bronze coin of theirs is called Homereium. The River Meles flows near the walls; and, in addition to the rest of the city’s equipment, there is also a harbour that can be closed. But there is one error, not a small one, in the work of the engineers, that when they paved the streets they did not give them underground drainage; instead, filth covers the surface, and particularly during rains, when the cast-off filth is discharged upon the streets. It was here that Dolabella captured by seige, and slew, Trebonius, one of the men who treacherously murdered the deified Caesar; and he set free many parts of the city. (Strabo 14.1.37; trans. Jones)
2. A Faithful Ally (First Century A.D.)
(Smyrna requests permission to build a temple to Tiberius.)
The deputies from Smyrna, on the other hand, after retracing the antiquity of their town — whether founded by Tantalus, the seed of Jove; by Theseus, also of celestial stock; or by one of the Amazons — passed on to the arguments in which they rested most confidence: their good offices towards the Roman people, to whom they had sent their naval force to aid not merely in foreign wars but in those with which we had to cope in Italy, while they had also been the first to erect a temple to the City of Rome, at a period (the consulate of Marcus Porcius) when the Roman fortunes stood high indeed, but had not yet mounted to their zenith, as the Punic capital was yet standing and the kings were still powerful in Asia. At the same time, Sulla was called to witness that “with his army in a most critical position through the inclement winter and scarcity of clothing, the news had only to be announced at a public meeting in Smyrna, and the whole of the bystanders stripped the garments from their bodies and sent them to our legions.” The Fathers accordingly, when their opinion was taken, gave Smyrna the preference. (Tacitus, Annals 4.56; trans. Jackson)
3. A Human Crown of Excellence
And remarking the zeal with which the people of Smyrna devoted themselves to all sorts of compositions, he [Apollonius] encouraged them and increased their zeal, and urged them to take pride rather in themselves than in the beauty of their city; for although they had the most beautiful of cities under the sun, and although they had a friendly sea at their doors, which held the springs of the zephyr, nevertheless, it was more pleasing for the city to be crowned with men than with porticos and pictures, or even with gold in excess of what they needed. For, he said, public edifices remain where they are, and are nowhere seen except in that particular part of the earth where they exist, but good men are conspicuous everywhere, and everywhere talked about; and so they can magnify the city the more to which they belong, in proportion to the numbers in which they are able to visit any part of the earth. (Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 4.7; trans. Conybeare)
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 41
4. Rebirth of a City (Fourth Century B.C.)
Smyrna, one of the twelve Aeolian cities, built on the site which is still called the Old City, was wrested from the Aeolians by some Ionians from Colophon; but afterwards the Ionians allowed the Smyrnaeans to take part in the federal assembly at Panionium. The present city was founded by Alexander, son of Philip, in consequence of a vision which he had in a dream. They say he had been hunting on Mount Pagus, and when the chase was over he came to a sanctuary of the Nemeses, and there he lighted on a spring and a plane-tree before the sanctuary, the tree overhanging the water. As he slept under the plane-tree the Nemeses, they say, appeared to him, and bade him found a city there and transfer to it the Smyrnaeans from the old town. So the Smyrnaeans sent envoys to Clarus to inquire about the matter, and the god answered them: —
Thrice blest, yea four times, shall they be
Who shall inhabit Pagus beyond the sacred Meles.
So they willingly removed, and they now believe in two Nemeses instead of one. (Pausanias 7.5.1–3; trans. Frazer)
5. The Loss of a City (Eighth Century B.C.)
The soil of Aeolis is better than that of Ionia, but the climate is not so good.
The Aeolians lost Smyrna by treachery. They had received into the town some men from Colophon, who had been defeated by the rival faction and expelled; the fugitives watched their chance and, when the people of Smyrna were celebrating a festival of Dionysus outside the walls, shut the gates and got possession of the town. The Aeolians of the other states came to their help, and terms were agreed to whereby the Ionians should surrender all movable property but keep possession of the town. The people of Smyrna were then distributed amongst the other eleven Aeolian towns, where they were given civic rights. (Herodotus 1.149, 150; trans. Sélincourt)
6. The Legends of Smyrna and Mt. Sipylus
(Pelops)
When Pelops…had been dismembered by Tantalus at the feast of the gods, Ceres consumed his arm, but by the power of the gods he was brought to life again. When the rest of his members had been joined together, Ceres replaced the missing shoulder with ivory. (Hyginus, Fabula 83)
(Odysseus sees Tantalus in the Underworld)
And I saw Tantalos also, suffering hard pains, standing in lake water that came up to his chin, and thirsty as he was, he tried to drink, but could capture nothing; for every time the old man, trying to drink, stooped over, the water
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 42
would drain away and disappear, and the black earth showed at his feet, and the divinity dried it away. Over his head trees with lofty branches had fruit like a shower descending, pear trees and pomegranate trees and apple trees with fruit shining, and figs that were sweet and olives ripened well, but each time the old man would straighten up and reach with his hands for them, the wind would toss them away toward the clouds overhanging. (Homer Odyssey 11.582-592; trans. Lattimore)
(Niobe)
For even Niobe, she of the lovely tresses, remembered to eat, whose twelve children were destroyed in her palace, six daughters, and six sons in the pride of their youth, whom Apollo killed with arrows from his silver bow, being angered with Niobe, and shaft-showering Artemis killed the daughters; because Niobe likened herself to Leto of the fair colouring and said Leto had borne only two, she herself had borne many; but the two, though they were only two, destroyed all those others. Nine days long they lay in their blood, nor was there anyone to bury them, for the son of Kronos made stones out of the people; but on the tenth day the Uranian gods buried them. But she remembered to eat when she was worn out with weeping. And now somewhere among the rocks, in the lonely mountains, in Sipylus, where they say is the resting place of the goddesses who are nymphs, and dance beside the waters of Acheloios, there, stone still, she broods on the sorrows that the gods gave her. (Homer, Iliad 24.602-617; trans. Lattimore)
7. Crowns at Smyrna (Second Century A.D.)
The harbors provide arms for the beloved city and are in turn adorned by it, and the Meles River is not impeded by lack of neighbors. In spring and summer the gates open beneath garlands [lit. crowns]. Choruses of Nymphs and Muses dance in and around the city, and the zephyrs blow grief to no one. (Aelius Aristides, Oration 21.471)
Well has the crown [ie. Smyrna] been preserved for Ionia, and Asia has provided its own adornment. (Aelius Aristides, Oration 22.478)
8. Smyrna honors a dead man with a golden crown (First Century B.C.)
(Cicero remarks on the unusual treatment of an obscure man.)
I wish I had time to recite the decree of the people of Smyrna which they passed for Castricius after his death, first that he should be brought into the city — a privilege not allowed others — secondly that young men should bear him, finally that a crown of gold should be placed on him even though he was dead. This was not done for Publius Scipio, that illustrious man, when he died at Pergamum. But for Castricius — ye immortal gods, what words did they use! They call him “The glory of his country, the ornament of the Roman people, the flower of the youth.” (Cicero, pro Flacco 31.75; trans. Lord)
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 43
Pergamum—A city Of Authority
And to the angel of the church in Pergamum write: “The words of him who has the sharp two-edged sword.
“I know where you dwell, where Satan’s throne is; you hold fast my name and you did not deny my faith even in the days of Antipas my witness, my faithful one, who was killed among you, where Satan dwells. But I have a few things against you: you have some there who hold the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to put a stumbling block before the sons of Israel, that they might eat food sacrificed to idols and practice immorality. So you also have some who hold the teaching of the Nicolaitans. Repent then. If not, I will come to you soon and war against them with the sword of my mouth. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To him who conquers I will give some of the hidden manna, and I will give him a white stone, with a new name written on the stone which no one knows except him who receives it.” (Rev. 2:12–17)
Location
To reach Pergamum we move north from Ephesus. Pergamum, though not far from the sea, is an inland city; its connection with the sea was effected by the River Caicus, which flows a few miles to the south of the city. The importance of the city’s geography is not apparent; the city’s immediate situation, however, with its striking acropolis, is impressive in the extreme. The feeling which the city’s
The acropolis of Pergamum.
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 44
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 45
aspect has on the visitor is well expressed by Sir William Ramsay: “History marked it out as the royal city, and not less clearly has nature done so. No city of the whole of Asia Minor — so far as I have seen, and there are few of any importance which I have not seen — possesses the same imposing and dominating aspect. It is the one city of the land which forced from me the exclamation ‘A royal city!’ I came to it after seeing the others, and that was the impression which it produced.”1
Historical Sketch
Human habitation began at Pergamum around the eighth century B.C. The city entered briefly on the pages of history in 399 B.C., when Xenophon stopped there with his soldiers. But Pergamum’s period of glory did not begin until Hellenistic times. In the division of Alexander’s empire after the great Conqueror’s death, Lysimachus received western Asia Minor and at the same time came into possession of 9000 talents, a huge treasure derived from extensive conquests. Lysimachus placed a part of this treasure at Pergamum and entrusted its protection to a eunuch named Philetaerus. This arrangement lasted until 281 B.C., when Lysimachus died in battle; he left no heir, and though most of his territory came under the control of Antiochus, Philetaerus, in firm control of both Pergamum and the treasure, became the undisputed ruler of the city (Test. 1). Philetaerus was an intelligent and diplomatic ruler; he maintained good relations with neighboring cities and undertook the beautification of Pergamum, thus preparing a favorable political climate, both internal and external, for his successors.
When Philetaerus died in 263 B.C. his nephew and adopted son, Eumenes I, succeeded him. Usually called the first king of Pergamum, Eumenes I did little of note except to extend the city’s territory slightly, and when he died in 241 B.C. his successor, Attalus I (Test. 5), found some large problems facing him. The Gauls, a fierce nation of semi-barbaric warriors who had only recently arrived in Asia Minor, were causing havoc in the neighboring kingdoms, and both Philetaerus and Eumenes I had felt it wise to pay their extortion demands. Attalus I thought himself strong enough to refuse them, and war was the result. A great battle took place in 230 B.C. between Attalus I and the Gauls, in which the army of Pergamum was victorious. The many wars in which Attalus I was
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 46
engaged did little to increase his kingdom, but they did cause the king to look about for an ally. Toward the end of the third century B.C. a new power began to appear on the scene — Rome. The friendly interest which Attalus I had in Rome was renewed by his successors, and a strong bond grew up between the two cities (Test. 8).
Eumenes II, who succeeded to the throne on the death of Attalus I in 197 B.C., particularly profited from the good will of the Romans (Test. 2). The Romans had tried to avoid entanglements in the East, but they were eventually forced into war with Antiochus the Great of Syria. The defeat of Antiochus at the battle of Magnesia in 190 B.C. left the Romans with his territory, and having no desire to administer it themselves, they gave it all to Eumenes II, so that now Pergamum was at its zenith. A great building program was undertaken and the city was embellished with many new structures and works of art. Education and the arts were supported by the king, and Pergamum developed into one of the foremost cities of the Mediterranean. Eumenes had good reason to be grateful to the Romans, and he showed his gratitude by joining the Roman attack on Perseus, king of Macedonia.
Eumenes II died in 159 B.C., and his brother, Attalus II, ascended the throne of Pergamum. The reign of Attalus II saw again the cooperation of Rome and Pergamum. Attalus was attacked by Prusias of Bithynia. The war dragged on for years, and was finally ended when Roman troops arrived in 154 B.C. In Greece the Romans were having problems maintaining order. In 146 B.C. the Roman general Mummius attacked the city of Corinth as an example to the other Greek cities. Attalus sent troops to aid the Romans, and Corinth fell.
Attalus III, nephew of Attalus II, became king of Pergamum when his uncle died in 138 B.C. A strange man who was disliked by his subjects, Attalus III ruled only five years. He was interested in agriculture and botany (particularly poisonous plants) as well as other subjects not commonly studied by royalty. He left one of the most famous wills of the world, for when he died in 133 B.C., it was found that he had given the kingdom of Pergamum to Rome (Test. 3). But before the Romans could consider what to do with their new property, a man named Aristonicus, claiming to be the illegitimate son of Eumenes II, raised an army and demanded the kingdom for himself. Aristonicus was defeated by the Romans in 130 B.C. The more distant parts of the kingdom were given to other powers, and the central portion of the kingdom of Pergamum became the Roman province of Asia, consisting of the regions of Mysia, Lydia, Ionia, and Caria.
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 47
Fig. 8 The Temple of Augustus at Pergamum; Coin of the Commune of Asia.
Only once did the old pride of the royal city lift itself to revolt against Roman rule. In 88 B.C. Mithridates, king of Pontus, entered the province, supposedly to free the Greek cities from Roman tyranny. The Pergamenians joined Mithridates, allowed him to use the city as his headquarters, and killed the Italians residing in the city; but the campaign of Sulla succeeded in driving out Mithridates, and Pergamum returned to its old ally, though it was not above treating the Romans with contempt (Test. 7).
Archaeological Remains
Important and beautiful buildings at Pergamum began to rise in the reign of Attalus I, but the greatest building activity occurred under Eumenes II (Fig. 7). The upper town was occupied by the royal family, a few nobles, and some of the military, and the majority of the buildings date to the time of Eumenes II. Here stood the palace of Eumenes II as well as that of Attalus I. North of the palaces were buildings identified as barracks, a command tower, and arsenals. The most spectacular monument of the upper city is the high narrow theater, before which extended a long terrace with a colonnade terminating on the north in a temple of Dionysus. Behind the theater stood the temple of Athena, located within a court enclosed by colonnades. The colonnade on the north joined the famous library.
Eumenes II and Attalus II were great book-collectors and during their reign amassed a library of 200,000 volumes. Alexandria also had a large library, and Eumenes and Ptolemy became jealous of each other. This jealousy brought about an unexpected benefit. Up to this time almost all ancient books were made of papyrus and rolled into scrolls. Papyrus grew best in Egypt along the Nile and could hardly be obtained elsewhere. Ptolemy, determined to out-collect Eumenes,
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 48
The theater at Pergamum.
forbade the export of papyrus, and thus forced Eumenes to discover another writing material (Test. 4). Animal skin (usually sheepskin) was that new material; parchment, the English word for the substance, derives from the name of the city. With the new writing material a new type of book came into use. It was found that parchment did not work well as a scroll, and so sheets were sewn together to form the codex (bound) type of book which we use today.
The famous altar of Zeus is situated a little to the south and below the temple of Athena. Some think that this is Satan’s throne mentioned in Rev. 2:13. The sculptures of this great monument, representing the battle of the gods and the giants, are now in Berlin, and only the foundations remain on the site. The structure when intact, with its colonnade, sculpture, and monumental stairway, must have been very impressive. Just below the altar of Zeus was the marketplace of the upper city, bordered as usual with colonnades, and containing a temple, probably dedicated to the god Hermes.
Part way down the south side of the acropolis stood a complex of buildings now usually called the middle city. The most important buildings in this group were the gymnasiums and the marketplace, but religious structures were also included, such as sanctuaries of Hera Basileia, Asclepius, and Demeter. The sanctuary of Demeter seems to have been especially significant, for the associated structures, containing also seats for about 800 spectators, suggest that rites were conducted here similar to the Eleusinian Mysteries of Demeter in Greece.
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 49
Site of the Altar of Zeus at Pergamum.
The ancient lower city has not been excavated, for the area is occupied by the modern town of Bergama. A few antiquities can be seen here and there, but by far the most important is the Asclepieum, southwest and across the River Selinus from the acropolis. The sanctuary of Asclepius, the major healing god of the pagan Greek religion, was probably established here in the fourth century B.C., but most of the surviving remains date to the second century of our era.
Character
Pergamum had been the seat of some of the most powerful kings of the Hellenistic world; it had been the headquarters of Mithridates; and, finally, it had been the capital of the Roman province of Asia. Pergamum knew what it meant to wield the two-edged sword of authority; but now it was being addressed by him whose sword of authority was the truth which he spoke. The throne of the Attalids was now occupied by Satan, the Roman authority, the adversary of the Christians. Some of the believers had even suffered martyrdom in their steadfastness to the name and faith of Jesus. But although the Christians were bearing up under the official oppression, they were succumbing to the blandishments of their own teachers, which led
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 50
North colonnade of the Asclepieum at Pergamum.
into idolatry and immorality. With its theaters, recital halls, lecture rooms, and library, Pergamum was much frequented by philosophers and teachers, many of whom taught principles which undermined the Christian faith. The local Jewish population also was probably causing trouble to the Christians (Test. 6). It is difficult to know what St. John meant by the “hidden manna” and the “white stone, with a new name,” which would be given to the one who overcomes the temptations at Pergamum. Perhaps an illusion is being made to the stone which was given to the Romans, and which was worshipped by them as the Magna Mater (Test. 8); but it is difficult also not to see some reference to the worship of Asclepius or Demeter, both of which were receiving considerable attention in the first century after Christ and were in some competition with Christianity. Secret sacred objects with messages engraved on stone were associated with the rites of Asclepius and Demeter, whose worship sometimes embraced doctrines so close to those of Christianity, that only he who has the sharp two-edged sword would be able to divide them.
Aelius Aristides, a frequent visitor to the sanctuary, says that he was given a new name, Theodorus, by Asclepius.
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 51
Testimonia
1. A Royal Treasure (Fourth-Third Centuries B.C.)
Now Pergamum was a treasure-hold of Lysimachus, the son of Agathocles, who was one of the successors of Alexander, and its people are settled on the very summit of the mountain; the mountain is cone-like and ends in a sharp peak. The custody of this stronghold and the treasure, which amounted to nine thousand talents, was entrusted to Philetaerus of Tieium, who was a eunuch from boyhood, but he was well trained and proved worthy of this trust. Now for a time he continued loyal to Lysimachus, but he had differences with Arsinoe, the wife of Lysimachus, who slandered him, and so he caused Pergamum to revolt, and governed it to suit the occasion, since he saw that it was ripe for a change. (Strabo 13.4.1; trans. Jones)
2. Growth and Splendor of Pergamum (Second Century B.C.)
Eumenes fought on the side of the Romans against Antiochus the Great and against Perseus, and he received from the Romans all the country this side of the Taurus that had been subject to Antiochus. But before that time the territory of Pergamum did not include many places that extended as far as the sea at the Elaitic and Adramyttene Gulfs. He built up the city and planted Nicephorium with a grove, and the other elder brother, from love of splendour, added sacred buildings and libraries and raised the settlement of Pergamum to what it now is. (Strabo 13.4.2; trans. Jones)
3. A Last Will and Testament (Second Century B.C.)
Attalus, surnamed Philometor, reigned five years, died of disease, and left the Romans his heirs. The Romans proclaimed the country a province, calling it Asia, by the same name as the continent. The Caicus flows past Pergamum, through the Caicus Plain, as it is called, traversing land that is very fertile and about the best in Mysia. (Strabo 13.4.2; trans. Jones)
4. The Source of Human Immortality (Second Century B.C.)
…when owing to the rivalry between King Ptolemy and King Eumenes about their libraries Ptolemy suppressed the export of paper, parchment was invented at Pergamum; and afterwards the employment of the material on which the immortality of human beings depends spread indiscriminately. (Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 13.21.70; trans. Rackham)
5. A Kingly Man
At the same time [197 B.C.] King Attalus, who had fallen ill at Thebes and then removed from Thebes to Pergamum, died in his seventy-second year, after
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 52
he had been on the throne for forty-four years. Fortune had bestowed upon this man nothing but wealth to give him hope of royal power. By using this both wisely and splendidly he brought it about that he seemed worthy of the throne, first in his own eyes, then in those of others. Then when in a single battle he had conquered the Gauls, a people the more terrible to Asia by reason of their recent arrival, he assumed the title of king, and thenceforth his greatness of soul always matched the greatness of his distinction. He ruled his subjects with perfect justice, exhibited remarkable fidelity to his allies, was courteous to his wife and sons — four survived him — and kind and generous to his friends; he left a kingdom so strong and well-established that possession of it was handed down to the third generation. (Livy 33.21; trans. Sage)
6. A Decree Regarding the Jews (Second Century B.C.)
Decree of the people of Pergamum. “In the presidency of Cratippus, on the first of the month Daisios, a decree of the magistrates. As the Romans in pursuance of the practices of their ancestors have accepted dangerous risks for the common safety of all mankind and strive emuiously to place their allies and friends in a state of happiness and lasting peace, the Jewish nation and their high priest Hyrcanus have sent as envoys to them…worthy and excellent men…whereupon the Senate passed a decree concerning the matters on which they spoke, to the effect…that the fortresses, harbours, territory and whatever else he [Antiochus] may have taken from them shall be restored to them; and that it shall be lawful for them to export goods from their harbours and that no king or people exporting goods from the territory of the Jews or from their harbours shall be untaxed except only Ptolemy, king of Alexandria, because he is our ally and friend.” (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 14.247-250; trans. Marcus)
7. Pergamenian Sincerity (First Century B.C.)
For you seemed to me to glory in the commendation of the men of Pergamum as if you had attained the rank of your ancestors. And in this you thought you were superior to Laelius because the citizens of Pergamum praised you. The state of Pergamum is not more honourable than Smyrna, is it? Not even the people of Pergamum themselves say that. The people of Pergamum have been making fun of you. Again, did you not know you were being derided when they used these words to describe you? “A most famous man, of outstanding wisdom, of unusual talent!” Believe me, they were making sport of you. But when they were putting a golden crown over the letters of the decree, they were really entrusting you with no more gold than they would bestow on a jackdaw. Could you not even then perceive the wit and the humour of the men? (Cicero, pro Flacco 30.75-76; trans. Lord)
8. A Sacred Stone
At that time [205 B.C.] religious scruples had suddenly assailed the citizens [of Rome] because in the Sibylline books, which were consulted on account of
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 53
the frequent showers of stones that year, an oracle was found that, if ever a foreign foe should invade the land of Italy, he could be driven out of Italy and defeated if the Idaean Mother should he brought from Pessinus to Rome…
In Asia the Roman people had as yet no allied states. They bore in mind, however, that Aesculapius also had been summoned once upon a time from Greece on account of an epidemic, while there was as yet no treaty of alliance; that at present on account of a joint war against Philip they had already entered into friendly relations with King Attalus. Thinking that he would do what he could for the sake of the Roman people, they decided to send ambassadors to him….They came to the king at Pergamum. He courteously received the ambassadors and, escorting them to Pessinus in Phrygia, presented them with the sacred stone which the inhabitants said was the Mother of the Gods, and bade them carry it away to Rome. (Livy, 29.10, 11; trans. Moore)
THE MESSAGE OF THE BIBLE
The Bible claims to be the inspired Word of God (II Timothy 3:16). If it is not, then mankind has no source of absolute knowledge or truth. Man must then forever grope in the dark for the real meaning of life: where we came from; why we are here, and where we are going.
But Christ said, “Thy Word is truth,” (John 17:17). He made a most amazing statement, “Moses wrote of me,” (John 5:46). How could Moses have written about Jesus when he lived 1500 years before Christ was born, unless indeed he had been given supernatural knowledge? How could David, who lived 1000 B.C., have written a detailed description of the crucifixion of Christ, as he did in Psalm 22? How could Daniel have prewritten the history of Medio-Persian, Grecian, and Roman empires, as he did in the book that bears his name? How could the Bible itself have withstood successfully all of the onslaughts of critics, rationalists, atheists, and agnostics and remain today in this enlightened age the most translated and best selling of books? And how could some of the world’s greatest scholars and scientists have placed implicit faith in its teachings, if it is not a book worthy of acceptance?
The fact of the matter is that God has spoken to mankind and has had His message permanently preserved in book form so that we might know what kind of God He is and what He expects of us. In a world of sin and violence and hatred, He wants us to know that He loves and cares and has provided for the eternal well-being of all who will put their trust in Him through the salvation Christ accomplished in His death, burial, and resurrection. That is the central message of the Bible: “Christ died for our sins. .. was buried. .. and rose again.”
BSP 5:2 (Spring 1976) p. 54