Bryant G. Wood
In our Summer-Autumn 1979 issue we discussed five Assyrian kings named in the Bible (pages 81–96). Now we wish to examine the other side of that coin — the kings of Israel named in the Assyrian records. All told, there are nine kings of Israel and Judah mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions. References to five of these kings (Menaham, Pekah, Hosea, Ahaz, and Hezekiah) are paralleled by biblical passages and were discussed in our Summer-Autumn 1979 article. The remaining four have to do with events not mentioned in the Bible and thereby add to our knowledge of these particular Israelite kings.
Ahab the Israelite
Ahab is one of the best known of the rulers of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Some seven chapters of the Old Testament are devoted to his activities (1 Kings 16:29–22:40 and 2 Chronicles 18). Ahab was the son of Omri and seventh king of Israel after the monarchy split. He ruled for 22 years, ca. 874-853 B.C., and married the infamous Phoenician princess Jezebel who introduced the worship of the heathen gods Melkart, Baal and Ashtoreth into
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 12
Israelite religious life. Ahab did not try to stop this alien cult and, in fact, seems to have condoned it:
He erected an altar for Baal in the house of Baal, which he built in Samaria. And Ahab made an Asherah. (1 Kings 16:32–33, R.S.V.)
Because of his association with these pagan deities, Ahab is written off in the biblical record as one who had done “more to provoke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that were before him” (1 Kings 16:33). Elijah condemned Ahab as one who had troubled Israel, having forsaken the commandments of the Lord to follow Baal (1 Kings 18:18). It was during Ahab’s reign that the famous confrontation between Elijah and the prophets of Baal took place on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:19–40).
Ahab was evidently a great builder. We have already seen that he built a temple to Baal in his capital of Samaria (1 Kings 16:32). The concluding statement on Ahab in 1 Kings 22 is:
Now the rest of the acts of Ahab, and all that he did, and the ivory house which he made, and all the cities that he built, are they not written in the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? (verse 39)
The mention of a house of ivory is interesting in view of an archaeological discovery at Samaria. In the 1930’s the remains of buildings constructed by Ahab and his father Omri were excavated at their capital city. Among the finds were fragments of carved ivories which had once adorned the walls and furniture of the palace at Samaria.
Much of Ahab’s attention, however, was taken up with a war against Syria to the north (1 Kings 20). When Israel had gained the upper hand, a peace treaty between the two nations was struck which lasted three years (1 Kings 20:31–34, 22:1). This period of peace was no doubt born out of necessity, for both Syria and Israel now faced a common enemy — Assyria.
Shalmaneser III (859-825 B.C.) was on the throne of Assyria and he was steadily pushing westward. In order to counteract this powerful foe, the kingdoms of the west joined together to form a unified coalition. In the year 853 B.C. this coalition, including Ahab of Israel, came face to face with Shalmaneser III and his forces at Qarqar, near Hama in north Syria. This confrontation undoubtedly took place during the three years of peace between Israel and Syria mentioned in 1 Kings 22:1. Shalmaneser tells of the battle, from his own point of view of course, in his Monolith Inscription:
I departed from Argana and approached Qarqar. I destroyed, tore down, and
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 13
burned down Qargar, his royal residence. He brought along to help him 1,200 chariots, 1,200 cavalrymen, 20,000 foot soldiers of Hadadezer [Ben-Hadad of 1 Kings 20] of Damascus; 700 chariots, 700 cavalrymen, 10,000 foot soldiers of Irhuleni from Hamath; 2,000 chariots, 10,000 foot soldiers of Ahab the Israelite; 300 soldiers from Que. 1,000 soldiers from Musri; 10 chariots, 10,000 soldiers from Irganata; 200 soldiers of Matinu-ba’lu from Arvad; 200 soldiers from Usanata; 30 chariots, 1(0?),000 soldiers of Aduna-ba’lu from Shian; 1,000 camel-(rider)s of Gindibu from Arabia [….],000 soldiers of Ba’sa, son of Ruhubi, from Ammon — (all together) these were 12 kings. They rose against me [for a] decisive battle. I fought with them with (the support of) the mighty forces of Ashur, which Ashur, my Lord, has given to me, and the strong weapons which Nergal, my leader, has presented to me, (and) I did inflict a defeat upon them between the towns of Qarqar and Gilzau. (ANET 278–279)
A significant fact that emerges from this inscription is that Ahab had one of the largest forces in the coalition. The four largest contingents may be compared as follows:
Chariots
Cavalrymen
Foot Soldiers
Ben-Hadad
1,200
1,200
20,000
Ahab
2,000
—
10,000
Irhuleni
700
700
10,000
Irqanata
10
—
10,000
Ahab had the largest number of chariots and was second only to Ben-Hadad in the number of foot soldiers. From the time of Solomon on, the Israelites maintained a chariot corps. In 2 Chronicles 4:25 we read that “Solomon had 4,000 stalls for horses and chariots, and 12,000 horsemen,” and in 1 Kings 10:26, “And Solomon gathered chariots and horsemen: and he had 1,400 chariots, and 12,000 horsemen, whom he bestowed in the cities for chariots, and with the king at Jerusalem.” A unique type of long pillared building from the period of the divided kingdom, found in sites throughout Israel, has been identified as a stable. A large complex of these buildings was found at Megiddo in the 1930’s. The excavators immediately identified them as Solomon’s stables. Later analysis, however, has shown that they date to the time of Ahab. It has been estimated that about 500 horses could have been quartered in the Megiddo stables.
After the Assyrian threat had passed, Ahab continued his war with Ben-Hadad (1 Kings 22). This time, however, Ahab was mortally wounded in a battle at Ramoth-Gilead in Transjordan. His body
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 14
was brought back to Samaria where he was buried, and “slept with his fathers.”
Jehu Son of Omri
Following the death of Ahab, his son Ahaziah took the throne. He ruled for two years and died from injuries received in a fall in the palace at Samaria (2 Kings 1). Since Ahaziah had no son, another of Ahab’s sons, “Jehoram (or Joram), ruled Israel for the next 12 years. Both of Ahab’s sons “did evil in the sight of the Lord” (1 Kings 22:52, 53 and 2 Kings 3:2, 3). Because of the sin of the house of Ahab, God put an end to the dynasty by means of Jehu, a chariot-riding general from Jehoram’s army. In a bloody coup, Jehu massacred all of Ahab’s family, including his wife Jezebel (2 Kings 9, 10), and went on to rule Israel for the next 28 years, ca. 841-814 B.C.
Jehu eliminated Baal worship (2 Kings 10:18–27), but otherwise his reign marked a decline in the fortunes of Israel. This is most apparent from an Assyrian monument. In the year 841 B.C., after Jehu had scarcely taken the throne, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III, the same king who fought against Ahab at Qargar in 853 B.C., mounted another western offensive. This time he defeated Damascus and then turned his attention southward to Israel as recorded on the “Black Obelisk” or “Obelisk of Shalmaneser.” This memorial stele was discovered by the pioneer English archaeologist A.H. Layard at Nimrud (biblical Calah) in Iraq in 1846. It records the tribute Shalmaneser received from five different kings.
I marched as far as the mountains of Hauran [i.e. northern Transjordan], destroying, tearing down and burning innumerable towns, carrying booty away from them which was beyond counting. I (also) marched as far as the mountains of Ba’li-ra’si which is a promontory [lit.: at the side of the sea] and erected there a stela with my image as king. At that time I received the tribute of the inhabitants of Tyre, Sidon, and of Jehu, son of Omri. (ANET 281)
It is quite possible that it was this campaign that Hosea referred to in his warning to Israel over 100 years later:
Therefore the tumult of war shall arise among your people, and all your fortresses shall be destroyed, as Shalman destroyed Beth-arbel on the day of battle; mothers were dashed in pieces with their children. Thus it shall be done to you, O house of Israel, because of your great wickedness. (Hosea 10:14–15, R.S.V.)
Shalman is a shortened form of Shalmaneser and Beth-arbel is a
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 15
Jehu king of Israel bowing before the Assyrian king Shalmaneser.
large mound near the modern city of Irbid in northern Jordan.
The Bali-ra’si where Shalmaneser received his tribute from Jehu is thought to be Mount Carmel, or possibly Ras en-Naqura at the mouth of the Dog River in central Lebanon. We are fortunate in that we have a pictorial representation of this event on the Black Obelisk. The second set of panels (from the top) depicts Jehu bowing before Shalmaneser, followed by 13 Israelite porters bearing tribute. The inscription above Jehu reads:
The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri: I received from him silver, gold, a golden saplu-bowl, a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden tumblers, golden buckets, tin, a staff for a king, (and) wooden puruhtu. (ANET 281)
This is the only known likeness of a king of Israel or Judah and is therefore of considerable interest. All 14 of the Israelites are bearded, have long hair and wear a pointed cap. They also wear a belted tunic that has a fringe at the bottom. In addition, the Israelite porters
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 16
Stele of Adad-Nirari III from Tell al Rimah which mentions tribute from “Jehoash the Samarian.”
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 17
wear a mantle over the tunic that extends over the shoulders and is fringed or tasseled down the front on both sides. Jehu, however, does not wear the outer mantle. His position before Shalmaneser may explain its absence. He is bowing in obeisance on his hands and knees before the Assyrian king with his chin and beard towards the ground. As a part of this humiliation, it seems that he had to remove his outer garment, thus forcing him to bow before the emperor of the world in what amounts to his underwear! All of the Israelite porters wear pointed shoes. Jehu’s feet are hidden from view, so that we cannot tell if he had his shoes on or not.
The inscription refers to Jehu as the “son of Omri.” Of course, Jehu was not an actual descendant of Omri, but rather was the one who exterminated Omri’s line in order to become king himself. The word “son” usually means a descendant, but in this case it simply refers to an unrelated successor in office.
Following Jehu, his son Jehoahaz ruled for 17 years (2 Kings 13:1–9) and then Jehoash, or Joash, son of Jehoahaz, ruled for 16 years, ca. 798-782 B.C.
Jehoash the Samarian
The Bible speaks of Jehoash’s military successes against Syria (2 Kings 13:24) and against Judah (2 Kings 14:8–14), but nothing is said about a contact with Assyria. That there was such a contact is now known because of a stele found at Tell al Rimah in Iraq in 1967. The Assyrian king Adad-Nirari III (ca. 811-782 B.C.) led a number of campaigns to the west during the course of his reign. On one of those Campaigns he defeated Damascus and then collected tribute from Israel, Tyre and Sidon. On the way home, he erected a monument at Tell al Rimah commemorating the event. The section of the stele which refers to Jehoash reads: “I received the tribute of Jehoash the Samarian, of the Tyrian [ruler] and of the Sidonian [ruler].”
Manasseh King of Judah
We now leave the kings of the Northern Kingdom to consider two references in the Assyrian records to Manasseh king of Judah. Manasseh came to the throne when he was only 12 years old and ruled for 55 years, ten of which were probably a coregency with his
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 18
father Hezekiah. The dates for his rule are ca. 696-641 B.C. Manasseh has the dubious reputation of being the wickedest king of either Israel or Judah (2 Kings 21:9–11). He undid the work of his father’s religious reform by reestablishing idolatry in Judah. He even instituted pagan worship in the Temple (2 Kings 21:4–5).
The Bible concentrates on Manasseh’s religious practices at home, but we know from the Assyrian records that he was also active in the international political sphere. Because of his unusually long reign, he was on the throne during the entire reign of Esarhaddon and about half the reign of Ashurbanipal, two of the strongest kings of Assyria. Manasseh is mentioned by each of these two kings. Manasseh was among 22 kings who were obliged to provide building materials for Esarhaddon’s palace at Ninevah:
I called up the kings of the country Hatti and (of the region) of the other side of the river (Euphrates). … Manasseh, king of Judah… [along with 21 other kings], together 22 kings of Hatti, the seashore and the islands; all these I sent out and made them transport under terrible difficulties, to Nineveh, the town (where I exercise) my rulership, as building material for my palace; big logs,
Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian king who conscripted troops from Manasseh king of Judah, on a lion hunt.
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 19
long beams (and) thin boards from cedar and pine trees… (ANET 291)
Ashurbanipal was intent on subjugating Egypt. In order to accomplish his goal, he conscripted troops from his western provinces, including Judah:
(Then) I called up to my mighty armed forces which Ashur and Ishtar have entrusted to me and took the shortest road to Egypt and Nubia. During my march (to Egypt) 22 kings from the seashore, the islands, and the mainland… [including] Manasseh, king of Judah… servants who belong to me, brought heavy gifts to me and kissed my feet. I made these kings accompany my army over the land — as well as (over) the sea-route with their armed forces and their ships. (ANET 294)
The Bible writers were concerned with religious matters more so than political matters and as a result much of the political history of Israel and Judah went unrecorded. The mention of nine of the kings of Israel and Judah in the Assyrian tablets is important not only because it verifies the historical reliability of our biblical documents for this period (which would surely be under greater attack by the critics were it not for the Assyrian records), but also because it places Israel and Judah on the larger stage of international politics.
Sources:
ANET — Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, edited by James B. Pritchard, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1969.
“A Stela of Adad-Nirari III and Nergal-Eres from Tell al Rimah” by S. Page, in Iraq 30 (1968): 139-153.
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 20
Ezekiel’s Plan of the Temple. An attempt at a reconstruction
I, II, III: gates of outer court
1, 2, 3: gates of inner court
a: outer court
b: inner court, 100 cubits square (40.28, 44)
c: munnāḥ
d: gizrā
e: terrace of temple
P: pavement (40.17f.)
L: chambers for visitors to temple (40.17)
Bi: binyan
O, T: chambers for priests (40.44)
Z: ‘chambers’ or cells with changing or dining rooms for the priests (42.1, 4, 7–13)
G: passage with dividing wall between it and outer court (42.7)
B: altar (40.47)
A, H, V: temple hall (40.48-41.4)
A: holy of holies; H: holy place (nave);
V: vestibule
K1 kitchens for the priests
K2 kitchens for the people (46.21f.)
BSP 9:1 (Winter 1980) p. 21